It can be determined by characteristic peaks. We share our knowledge and peer-reveiwed research papers with libraries, scientific and engineering societies, and also work with corporate R&D departments and government entities. Consequently, adipose tissue serves as a main site for activation of the inflammatory response in obesity. In this chapter, applications of IR spectroscopic and microscopic techniques to the characterization and understanding the obesity metabolism will be presented. The subtraction process is performed until the bulk water located around 2100 cm−1 is flattened using the spectrometer’s software program. A representative baseline corrected normalized FTIR spectrum of a human adipose tissue in the 4000–750 cm−1 region. Built by scientists, for scientists. Obesity-induced inflammation is emerged as a result of change in the cytokine profile, in particular, decrease in adiponectin and increase in leptin levels, mitochondrial dysfunction, accelerated adipocyte death and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The most commonly used alkali halide is KBr, which is completely transparent in the MID-IR region [18]. Enter your mobile number or email address below and we'll send you a link to download the free Kindle App. The most significant advances in infrared spectroscopy, however, have come about as a result of the introduction of Fourier-transform spectrom-eters. Unhealthy diet habits, reduced physical activity together with modern lifestyle, urbanization, genetic predisposition, and aging cause an obesity-promoting (obesigenic) environment and contribute to the higher prevalence of these diseases across all age groups [5]. Normalization is the mathematical function to set all the spectra to the same norm and scale. Contact our London head office or media team here. Includes instrumental and sampling techniques Covers biological and industrial applications Includes suitable questions and problems in each chapter … The background theory of infrared spectroscopy. Licensee IntechOpen. Therefore, the spectrum of the buffer is subtracted from the spectrum of liposomes at corresponding temperatures. Besides aqueous samples, dry samples, homogeneous soft tissues, or hard tissues can also be studied with the ATR–IR spectroscopy by directly placing a small portion of the sample on the crystal and then applying the same pressure to all the samples. The study showed the extracted pectin has potential use in the anti-obesity formulations [79]. El-Menshawe et al. By the way, HCA builds the hierarchical tree of dissimilarity between data points that is called dendrogram. Various techniques are available for sampling of liquids. Common normalization methods are min-max and vector normalization. The relationship between the spectroscopy-predicted and observed levels of steatosis, expressed as percentages of the liver biopsy area, was not linear. HeadquartersIntechOpen Limited5 Princes Gate Court,London, SW7 2QJ,UNITED KINGDOM. The relevant band assignments of the bands are given in Table 1 [67, 68]. The prominent increase in the lipid/protein ratio (Figure 4), accompanied with a decrease of UCP1 protein content might be due to the transdifferentiation of brown adipocytes to white adipocytes in obese groups. This allows both spatial and spectral information about the sample structure to be collected. Disease states are able to induce changes in molecular composition, concentration, structure, and function of biomolecules, which are directly reflected in the vibrational spectral bands, and therefore, they can be evaluated by using vibrational spectroscopy techniques [2]. Range of group frequency is 4000-1500 cm-1 while that of finger print region is 1500-400 cm-1. In current chapter, the applications of IR (mid and near), spectroscopic and microspectroscopic techniques in obesity research will be discussed in detail. It has dramatically improved the quality of IR spectra and minimized the time required to obtain data [17]. Over time, the technology has also been refined so that sample sizes can be very small, and portable IR equipment can be taken directly to a scene for on-site analysis. It also allows the detection of lower concentrations of biological components ranging from biomolecules, membranes, cells, tissues, and body fluids. The technique offers a “green” method of testing and fast, accurate results with the added benefit of saving money on the cost of consumables. The large number of wavelengths emitted by these systems makes it possible to investigate their structures in detail, including the electron configurations of ground and various excited states. Applications of IR spectroscopic techniques allow identifying molecular changes due to obesity, to understand the molecular mechanism of the disease, to identify specific spectral biomarkers that can be used in diagnosis. We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Identification of functional group and structure elucidation. In another work [74], the potential of FTIR microspectroscopy for grading steatosis on frozen tissue sections was evaluated. The results suggested that the consumption of COS-RS complexes exerted a more efficient recovery of insulin sensitivity compared to individual treatments [77]. In min-max normalization, the minimum and the maximum intensities of the whole spectrum are scaled to zero and one, respectively. Herbal supplements are currently available as a safer alternative to manage obesity. In these situations, sections should be embedded in optimum cutting temperature (OCT) medium and cryo-sectioned to retain the most sensitive and undisrupted insight into tissue architecture. 1] It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. Excessive fat accumulation results in changes in cellular and structural remodeling processes and causes alterations in the endocrine and metabolic systems. Ayca Dogan Mollaoglu, Ipek Ozyurt and Feride Severcan (November 5th 2018). In the literature, visceral adipose tissue has been implicated as a major risk factor for insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes [48, 58], cardiovascular disease [59], stroke [60], and metabolic syndrome [61]. Applications of IR spectroscopic techniques allow identifying molecular changes due to obesity, to understand the molecular mechanism of the disease, to identify specific spectral biomarkers that can be used in diagnosis. If absorbed energy is plotted as a function of wavenumber, an IR spectrum is observed. According to Beer–Lambert law, the signal intensity or more accurately the area under the bands gives concentration information. Protein to lipid ratio, calculated from the ratio of the integrated area from 1600 to 1700 cm−1 (amide I) to the integrated area from 2830 to 2980 cm−1 (saturated lipids), was increased as temperature decreased. The bandwidth of the CH2 stretching bands gives lipid fluidity information. Here in this chapter, we will discuss the mid and near IR spectroscopy in obesity research. In recent years, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) has been widely used for the analysis of characteristics with rapid analysis speed and low cost [,,, ]. After embedding in a material, generally, 6–10 micron tissue sections are obtained [34, 35]. In another obesity research [68], which targets to identify specific gene loci, regulating obesity in BXD recombinant inbred (RI) strains of mice, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was performed as a novel phenotyping tool. In addition, the microscope can be converted from transmission mode to reflectance mode by switching mirrors in the optical train. Some of the major applications of IR spectroscopy are as follows: 1. 2. Obesity might alter the electric activity in brain areas triggering appetite and craving. Many chemical drugs on the market are designed to prevent or manage obesity whose high cost, low efficacy, and multiple side effects limit their use. Biomolecular content, concentration, and structure were determined by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Especially in ATR mode, samples are directly put on the crystal without any sample preparation step. In another study, FTIR spectroscopy was used to determine physio-chemical properties of pectin extracted from the apple pomace that was proposed to inhibit pancreatic lipase (steapsin). In this chapter, after mentioning about the basis of IR spectroscopy and microscopy, the sample preparation techniques, spectral analysis methods together with the chemometric tools used in IR spectroscopy, the topic of obesity will be given briefly. Spectroscopy is based on the interactions between matter (sample analyzed) and energy from the portion of electromagnetic spectrum. Interest in the application of near infrared spectroscopy to microbiological research and analysis has grown in recent times. For example, fixed-path length-sealed cells are useful for volatile liquids, but cannot be taken apart for cleaning. ATR is accepted to require little or no sample preparation, and is one of the most versatile sampling techniques. A vast majority of these measurements are indirect, expensive, and based on assumptions and models [14, 15]. In recent years, scientific researchers have continued to increase the performance of this technique on clinical cases such as cancers and metabolic disorders. 1. In group frequency region, the peaks corresponding to different functional groups can be observed. Dunkhunthod et al. A spectroscopic technique used to observe vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency [modes in a system. In order to remove any artifact that arise from the thickness of the sample, generally in cell and tissue studies, area ratios of the specific bands are used [41, 42]. Different from other methods, Ward’s algorithm tries to find as homogeneous groups as possible. The products of VAT are driven to the liver via portal vein system, affecting its function. In group frequency region, the peaks corresponding to different functional groups can be observed. The IR spectroscopy results of the animal studies on adipose tissues can be transferred to medical research to be used in the diagnosis of obesity. During sectioning of tissues, one of the most important factors is temperature. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. This spectrum is quite complex and contains several bands, which arise from different functional groups belonging to biomolecules of the system. Barbara is the author of three other books published by John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, namely Modern Infrared Spectroscopy and Biological Applications of Infrared Spectroscopy, both in the ACOL series of open learning texts, and Polymer Analysis in this current AnTS series of texts. Infrared spectroscopy is a simple and reliable technique widely used in both organic and inorganic chemistry, in research and industry. This region of IR spectrum is called as finger print region of the molecule. This study revealed that, FTIR imaging is a promising technique to quantify cold-induced biochemical changes in BAT and s-WAT in a label-free manner [72]. Smoothing is used to reduce noise in data. The most significant advance in IR spectroscopy is the introduction of Fourier-transform methodology into the spectrometers. Finally, tissue samples are thaw-mounted on IR-transparent CaF2 or BaF2 windows for IR mapping and data processing [36]. The dramatic biochemical changes occurred in the nonsteatotic part of the tissue, suggested that the whole tissue reflects the grade of steatosis [74]. It is known that ER stress is linked with obesity-related pathologies including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease [5, 65, 66]. In order to achieve this, the gonadal (visceral) and inguinal (subcutaneous) adipose tissues of male BFMI lines, which are spontaneously obese were studied. Among the different methods used in cluster analysis, generally Ward’s algorithm together with Euclidian distances is used to construct the dendrograms, which gives one of the best predictions [45]. © 2018 The Author(s). General band assignment of the FTIR spectrum of an adipose tissue. Stability of body fat is key point to maintain metabolic homeostasis. The data suggest that mid-IR spectroscopy combined with statistical analysis allows identifying serum mid-IR signatures that reflect the liver status during NAFLD [73]. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a spectroscopic technique that has been used for analyzing the fundamental molecular structure of geological samples in recent decades. PCA analysis successfully operated to groups. This is because large number of absorption bands is observed in the IR spectra of organic molecules and the probability that any two compounds will produce identical spectra is almost zero. WAT is involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis, body thermal insulation and present active endocrine organ functions via production and secretion of adipokines such as leptin, adiponectin, IL6, IL10, TNFα, etc. They showed more TFA in VAT than in other abdominal fat (subcutaneous and retroperitoneal) stores. Bizeau et al. The wavelength of absorbed light is specific to the material taken. After that, another condenser focuses the radiation on MCT detector. Aboualizadeh et al. The detailed analyses are performed from the subtracted native spectra. Control group (black), obese group (BFMI 852–856) (red), obesity related insulin resistant group (BFMI 860–861) (blue). The TFA depot in visceral fat was higher than other fatty tissues for morbidly obese and nonobese patients. Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. Excess amount of energy is stored in the form of triglycerides in the lipid droplets of adipocytes and result in the increase in the number of adipocyte (hyperplasia) or enlargement in the size of adipocytes (hypertrophy). It is known that obesity constitutively results in storage of triglycerides in different adipose tissues [2]. Obesity is one of the main factors that increases the risk of many diseases and contributes to functional disabilities in tissues such as adipose, liver, and muscle. The epididymal adipose tissue, liver, and muscle of 29 BXD recombinant inbred mouse strains fed with high fat diet were used to analyze the role of white adipose tissue as a mediator of inflammation. Control group (black), obese group (BFMI 852–856) (red), obesity related insulin resistant group (BFMI 860–861) (blue). White adipose tissue has been organized in different anatomical location as visceral white adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous white adipose tissue (SCAT). The band positions and bandwidths of the spectral bands are measured from the center of weight (0.80× peak height position). Hard tissues are first exposed to different concentrations of ethanol, methyl methacrylate, and benzoyl peroxide for fixation and infiltration, and then are embedded into polyethylene methyl methacrylate (PMMA) along with a polymerization accelerator [37]. IR region is the most useful for the analysis of organic compounds having a wavelength range from 2500 nm to 16000 nm. IR spectroscopy products measure the transition between stretching vibrations (symmetrical and anti-symmetrical types) and bending vibrations. Changes in regional tissue oxygenation as detected by NIRS may reflect the delicate balance between oxygen delivery and consumption. The KBr pellet technique has been extensively used to study a variety of biological systems in dry stated [31, 32]. For example, the mechanism of the protective role of fatty acids, the effect of macrophage localization and origin to induce inflammation in adipose tissue and ER stress induced response of different organs such as liver, adipose tissue, anti-obesity effect of diets, therapeutic effect of drug, structural characterization of obese human membranes, tissues and organs are still not exactly known and further researches are required. It should be performed before any scaling or other preprocessing steps, but after baseline correction. Spectroscopy - Spectroscopy - Applications: Spectroscopy is used as a tool for studying the structures of atoms and molecules. This work also indicated that SCAT and VAT were affected from obesity at different rates and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometric analysis could sensitively differentiate these effects of obesity in adipose tissues. Fatty liver, itself, stimulates a local subacute inflammatory state by production of inflammatory mediators such as TNFα or IL-6 that contribute to hepatic and systemic insulin resistance [62]. It is applied before data analysis but should be kept minimum not to introduce some artifacts and should be performed in the right order. Login to your personal dashboard for more detailed statistics on your publications. TFA were measured by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. Protein in solution and membrane studies are only performed using this method [19]. The shift in the position of the amide I band and ratio of the amide I to amide II give information about the variations in protein secondary structure [22]. The applied pressure should allow until the strongest spectral bands to appear with an intensity extending beyond 70% T, and care should be given to provide uniform contact of the sample with crystal. The quantity of the substance can be determined either in pure form or as a mixure of two or more compounds. essentially a graph plotted with the infrared light absorbed on the Y-axis Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a frequent lesion associated with obesity, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. Offset correction can be applied by putting the lowest point to zero and linear baseline correction can be applied by subtracting a linear baseline as shown in Figure 1 or polynomial baseline correction may be preferred by subtracting a polynomial baseline of required order. Therefore, visceral fat is thought to be the more dangerous adipose tissue. Range of group frequency is 4000-1500 cm, C-H stretching of aromatic ring-                        3080 cm, C-H stretching of aldehyde-                              2860 cm, C=O stretching of an aromatic aldehyde-         1700 cm, C=C stretching of an aromatic ring-                  1595 cm, C-H bending-                                                     745 cm, Pharmacopoeia recommends 6 or 12 units in Disintegration or Dissolution Testing, "A 'compounder' wheather a b.pharm/m.pharm/Pharm D. never became a doctor"-by Dr.Sushma anil,a member of QPMPA, How to go Canada after B.Pharmacy in India and which job in Indian pharmaceutical industry helpful in Canada, How shattered chromosomes make cancer cells drug-resistant : Researchers, Cancer researchers identify potential new class of drugs to treat blood and bone marrow cancers, Pfizer vaccine 90% effective in preventing COVID-19, Anti-depressant repurposed to treat childhood cancer, Drug used in treating opioid addiction can reverse some of the type 2 diabetes - IIT Mandi researcher, QUALITY CONTROL TESTING OF PACKAGING MATERIALS, Pharmaceutical Regulatory Agencies and Organizations around the World: Scope and Challenges in Drug Development, ELECTRONIC TRANSITION IN UV VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY, SURFACTANTS AND ITS APPLICATION IN PHARMACEUTICALS: AN OVERVIEW. A.S. Gilbert, in Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry (Third Edition), 2017. In a recent study, electrical activity was induced by transcranial direct current brain stimulation (tDCS). Furthermore, FTIR spectra may give information about the disease-induced changes at very early stage, earlier than they become visible. Finally, the future direction of the field will be mentioned. Complementary H-1 NMR measurements confirmed the findings from this ratio in BAT. We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books. The material must be transparent to the incident IR radiation and normally alkali halides are used in transmission methods [20, 22, 23]. PC1 versus PC2 scores plot of the second derivative vector normalized spectra in the same range of SCAT (C) and VAT (D). 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